©VITO ion-exchange purification setup based on H2TiO3 beads, featuring automated adsorption and pH-controlled regeneration
At the end of 30 months of research and technical development, the project consortium has selected three process flowsheets for lithium recovery treating three types of sources: ores, brines and off-specification battery cathode materials (waste). Upscaling operations are now underway across all three processing routes. NTUA, VITO, SINTEF and TECNALIA have already started first experiments at TRL5, using the equipment and operating conditions scaled up from earlier laboratory development stage.
During the latest consortium meeting, hosted by SINTEF in Trondheim, partners presented the current status of each technology with the first batch of results, which will be guiding the next technical steps.
The spodumene route proposes a combination of complementary technologies: NTUA’s calcination with additives and leaching, VITO’s direct lithium extraction via adsorption, followed by SINTEF’s advanced electrodialysis. The final product expected is lithium carbonate.
NTUA has already completed a first pilot-scale run of the spodumene route and shipped the resulting sample to VITO for downstream processing. Although in this initial run, lithium recovery did not reach the laboratory values (83.7% final yield), sufficient solution was obtained to feed the pilot sequence. Similar to the laboratory results, impurities level remains relatively low. During the upcoming months, NTUA will continue adjusting process conditions to improve the recovery yield.
The samples have now reached VITO’s laboratories for the second processing step of this route. After finalising two adsorption/desorption cycles, VITO researchers have already established the base operation parameters to purify the spodumene leachates, reporting 70% yield. With a large processing capacity (treating 20L/day), the research team at VITO is planning to ship the samples towards SINTEF in June, for the final lithium hydroxide production step.
©VITO ion-exchange purification setup based on H2TiO3 beads, featuring automated adsorption and pH-controlled regeneration
Although still pending some equipment parts, TEC continues operating the brine route using liquid–liquid extraction from continental brines, followed by carbonation to lithium carbonate. Pilot operation is focused on recovery efficiency, stability, and energy use at scale. The material produced feeds directly into validation and sustainability assessments. The research team at TECNALIA already achieved 79% yield (higher than lab results reaching 68%), but improvement operations are ongoing, aiming 91% overall extraction efficiency assumed from the McCabe-Thiele analysis from lab results.
SINTEF is advancing the upscaled treatment of off-spec cathode material using their chlorination process, followed by electrochemical metal recovery. Pilot operation is aiming particularly at recovery efficiency lithium, low environmental impact and process scalability.
Given that the recovered product from this material is not lithium carbonate but lithium metal, SINTEF will review existing industrial practices for this pathway to define an appropriate benchmark.
The selected flowsheets will further undergo experimental tests towards obtaining high purity products. Once implemented, the consortium will reevaluate the environmental and economic performance of these flowsheets to identify opportunities for further optimisation.
ICP-OES analytic system at the LevertonHELM testing facility in Basingstoke, ©LevertonHELM
All materials produced by the three routes will be characterised using a single analytical framework. The team at LEVERTON, helped by SQM, will validate Li material, while UMICORE will mainly provide their industrial assessment of Co and Ni. Using one laboratory and procedure reduces variability and allows direct comparison between the three routes. This aspect becomes increasingly important when generated data will feed technical validation and downstream assessment activities.
Producing battery-grade lithium compounds is one of the final steps in the LiCORNE value chain. Partners across Europe have been refining electrochemical and crystallisation processes to recover lithium as high-purity carbonate or hydroxide from diverse sources: brines, ores and recycled cathode materials.
Using the solutions derived from VITO’s upstream processes, SINTEF researchers have constructed and commissioned electrochemical cells for electrodialysis to convert lithium chloride (LiCl) and sulfate (Li2SO4) solutions into lithium hydroxide (LiOH). Tests achieved:
Membrane flow cell setup © SINTEF
TECNALIA, advancing the organic-based membrane electrolysis, scaled up to a 10 cm2 electrolysis cell to test three types of solutions –those produced by the liquid-liquid extraction processes from brines and from spodumene leachates, and the off-specification cathode leachates. Outcomes include:
| Off-specification cathode material | A four-chamber setup recovered lithium and oxalic acid with yields above 95%, while the carbonation process produced Li2CO3 of >99% purity. |
| Brines and spodumene | Li recovery is performed directly on the stripping dissolution obtained in the separation and purification steps, bypassing membrane-electrolysis. Carbonation delivered 88% purity for brines and 99% for spodumene. |
| PIMs [Polymer inclusion membranes] | Tests confirmed lithium migration is possible, but further research is needed to improve conductivity and ensure efficient transport. |
4-chamber flow cell diagram designed by TEC for lab experiments, © TECNALIA
The research group at Fraunhofer Institute for Chemical Technology ICT explored a simple, highly scalable method for Li2CO3 recovery using a combination of several methods like ion exchange (IE), reversed osmosis (RO), electrodialysis with bipolar membranes (EDBM), and Li2CO3-precipitation (see figure below). The goal was to recover high-purity lithium carbonate from Lithium-concentrated solutions provided by partners EnBW and KIT.
Setup for Li2CO3 recovery from Li-concentrated solutions starting with ion exchange, via reversed osmosis and electrodialysis | © Fraunhofer ICT
While ion exchange removed key impurities, the removal of Mn2+ ions (particular in EnBW samples) is still under investigation. Low contamination levels are crucial for electrodialysis and lifetime of EDBM. For KIT-sourced solutions, the process delivered Li₂CO₃ at 99.89% purity.
SINTEF researchers achieved selective chlorination of lithium from calcined spodumene concentrate and off-specification cathode waste, with yields exceeding 95%. Their selective chlorination converts insoluble oxides to soluble chlorides by electrolysis, thus extracting target elements: Li, Ni and Co. Experiments show:
Chlorination setup at SINTEF, © SINTEF
The Gas-Diffusion Electrocrystallisation (GDEx), VITO’s proprietary technology, achieved >95% lithium extraction from geothermal and continental brines, spodumene effluents and cathode leachates. Downstream synthesis produced Li₂CO₃ with:
Schematic representation of the Gas-diffusion electrocrystallisation (GDEx) process, © VITO
A large group of people arriving on 15 May to Milos island was gathering at Adamantas Conference Centre for the LiCORNE Dissemination Event. A homogenous group of participants, both local authorities and stakeholders from all conrners of Europe, some privileged and attending in person, others online, opened up the floor for discussions around innovative approaches for sustainable extraction of critical raw materials (CRMs) and the role of geothermal fields.
Organised by AdMIRIS on the Milos island, known for its rich geothermal and mineral resources, the event addressed mining sustainability and lithium market dynamics at international, European and national level.
Europe, from its position as an ambassador of the green transition, is expected to see a robust increase in demand for lithium. Although not as well endowed when it comes to lithium as Australia, China and Chile, it is still home to an estimated 5 % of the global reserves. Its insignificant contribution to the global supply highlights the need for strategic reserves and investments in mining and recycling to ensure a stable supply and resilience against market volatility. Presentations at LiCORNE’s Dissemination Event hinted at timely investments in strategic reserves of lithium while prices remain low. This would, ideally, run in parallel with investing in new mines in Europe, incentives for recycling initiatives and continuous development of a performant infrastructure to support the adoption of electric vehicles.
After a brief introduction into the strategic importance of lithium as a critical raw material for green technologies, Dr. Christos Kanellopoulos from the Hellenic Survey of Geology and Mineral Exploration (HSGME), mapped various Li deposits on the map of Greece, along with national exploration projects currently assessing the metal’s presence in various ore deposits – pegmatites, lignite deposits, high salinity closed lakes, geothermal fluids and tertiary basins.
Getting lithium out of European ground is not easy. The metal can be found mostly in hard-rock deposits, which require open pit mines that are usually large, polluting, water-intensive and noisy. Mining projects in Europe are often met with hostile attitudes by the “not-in-my-backyard” and environmental groups. The Greek perception on the mining context in Europe, presented by Mr. Konstantinos Yazitzoglou, Chairman of the Greek Mining Enterprises Association, was both awakening and engaging.
The first take-away set the context, which reminded clearly that all human activities, including mining, create an impact on the environment. Our challenge today is to balance this impact with the benefits it brings. Historically, Western countries have subcontracted mining activities to other parts of the world, often disregarding the environmental and social impacts. Today, this practice is no longer sustainable as those regions are no longer willing to bear the negative consequences.
The BRICS group controls a significant portion of the world’s critical raw materials. With this challenging scenario, Europe has initiated strategic projects and legislative measures to address this issue, but progress has been relatively slow.
The mining industry carries a few ‘negative images’ – including incidents, professional provocateurs and spontaneous reactions from local communities, that should be addressed if Europe aims to resuscitate its mining activities.
To foster a healthy relationship with local communities, finding common grounds on how to disagree and addressing concerns with full transparency remain essential. Emphasising the social dimensions of mining, Mr. Konstantinos Yazitzoglou presented a Greek initiative to create a network of mining township to promote the coexistence of mining and local communities.
During the second part, the LiCORNE Dissemination event spiced up with contradictory presentations. PPC Renewables, operating numerous wind farms, hydroelectric and photovoltaic plants and a hybrid power plant, has recently leased several geothermal concessions in different regions in Greece, including one in Milos-Kimolos-Polyaigos island group. Geophysical surveys and drilling have revealed significant geothermal potential in Milos. Key findings include high conductivity areas in the eastern part of the island, a clear division of the island into two geological sections, and the presence of geothermal fluids in the eastern part of the island.
Despite the richness of the geological formations and the company’s initiatives to engage with the local community, during the event, local authorities made an announcement that no geothermal explorations will take place on the Milos island.
However, the island already has exemplary use cases of mining activities nurtured through social responsibility and engagement with local communities. Imerys is a world leader in mineral-based specialties, providing high-added solutions to various industries, including construction and consumer goods. The company, also a partner in the LiCORNE project, succeeds through performant operations, commercial excellence, market-driven innovation and a strong business model.
In 2018, Imerys launched their SustainAgility programme, structured into three key areas:
Imerys use case reflecting their activities on the Milos island is a sustained effort across several years. Three to four years of corporate involvement in identifying stakeholders, analysing their influence and interests, managing relationships, planning and reporting outcomes through consultation, communication, negotiation, compromise and building relationships that stand the test of time. Imerys presence in Milos, especially during the Covid pandemic, ensured the island’s resilience in times when tourism regular activities were restricted. Imerys long-term operation in Milos relies on balanced development, co-existing with tourism businesses. The company has invested in various initiatives to secure social acceptance and support from the local community.
Various partners in the LiCORNE project presented their innovative research and innovation [R&I] approaches aimed at supporting the sustainable exploration and exploitation of lithium resources. These partners showcased cutting-edge technologies and methodologies designed to minimise environmental impact while maximising resource efficiency, ensuring that lithium extraction aligns with sustainability goals and contributes to the green energy transition.
The LiCORNE project coordinator, Dr. Lourdes Yurramendi opened the technical sessions with an introduction into the scope of work and the objectives, leading after the conversation to the presentations of the specific technologies explored by the LiCORNE partners:
At the LiCORNE EU Project Dissemination event, Nader Akil [Business Operations Manager at PNO] outlined how the EU’s funding is strategically distributed to support R&I initiatives like LiCORNE. The EU’s evolving policy mix, including the Critical Raw Materials Act [CRMA], proposed in March 2023, focuses on ensuring a diverse and secure supply of materials for new industries, setting priorities and benchmarks for 2030. The NetZero Industry Act [NZIA] aims to scale up clean technology manufacturing in the EU to 40 %, with fast-track permitting and strategic projects. The Innovation Fund, closely tied to the NZIA, supports net-zero technologies, including €1 billion for electric vehicle battery cell manufacturing and funding for lithium extraction combined with geothermal installations. The Competitiveness Compass aims to retain Europe’s competitive edge by closing the innovation gap and decarbonising high-impact sectors. With over €22.5 billion in strategic project investments and ambitious 2030 benchmarks, structured innovation ecosystems are essential.
On 12 December 2024, the third edition of the annual workshop of the Cluster Hub “Production of Raw Materials for Batteries from European Resources” took place in Brussels, being co-organised by EU-funded projects RHINOCEROS, CRM-geothermal and CICERO. This third edition, along with an increasing number membership, confirm the hub’s role as a dynamic ecosystem that continues to generate innovations in the European battery materials sector.
The hub’s annual workshop, held as a satellite event of the Raw Materials Week 2024, provided once again a platform for presenting the most promising results from participating projects. Two technical sessions covered the entire battery value chain, from raw materials mining to recycling, while the opening conveniently portrayed the policy, the regulatory and strategic frameworks that support and drive the EU R&I initiatives in the battery sector.
Susana Xara, Project adviser on raw materials at European Health and Digital Executive Agency (HaDEA), established the discussions tone, navigating through the insights of the Critical Raw Materials Act [CRMA] and the Net Zero Industry Act [NZIA] and focusing on their contribution to securing a sustainable supply of critical raw materials for the European battery industry.
Wouter IJzermans, BEPA Executive Director, presented the long-term vision and potential revisions of their roadmap, emphasising the importance of policy frameworks and incentives in promoting battery innovation and deployment across Europe.
The presentation of Vasileios Rizos from the Centre for European Policy Studies (CEPS) identified various barriers and challenges emerging from the EU policy framework on batteries, based on inputs from 20 companies across the entire battery value chain, including partners from the BATRAW project, member of the Cluster Hub since 2022. The representative of CEPS concluded with a set of policy messages referring to early dialogue channels established between policy-makers and various stakeholders. Before the legal requirements entry into force, this information exchange on availability of secondary data sets could enable stakeholders to assess the data quality, select suitable sets of information and identify potential data gaps.
Publicly available resources submitted by CEPS:
Orchestrating the launch and on-going work of the Cluster Hub, PNO Innovation Belgium [part of PNO Group – leader in innovation and funding consultancy], represented by Dr. Nader Akil, concluded the first session with an overview of all EU funding programmes supporting research, innovation and investment in raw materials production for batteries. Additional to the upcoming funding opportunities and guidance on selecting the appropriate funding opportunities based on the status of technology, Dr. Nader Akil introduced another initiative launched by PNO Group – DIAMONDS4IF. This project supports the preparation of Innovation Fund applications, enabling the transfer of H2020 research results into successful ventures and securing investment funding.
Download Funding Schemes presentation
The session of technical presentations debuted with RAWMINA project, represented by Carmen Estepa, R&D Manager at AGQ Mining & Bioenergy, providing an overview of its final results on the demonstration activities of an integrated innovative pilot system for CRMs recovery from mine wastes. Up-to-date results indicate encouraging extraction rates of ~90 % Fe, ~95 % Co and ~60 % antimony (Sb) yielded by the bioleaching process. Additionally, the alkaline leaching applied after bioleaching extracted more than 90 % tungsten (W), while the following processing step – Fe precipitation, confirmed that Fe and Sb can be removed almost completely from the solution (>90 %). Finally, the processes engaged in the selective CRM recovery yielded promising recovery rates in the range of 99 % for Co, 65 % for W, 77 % for Sb.
Dr. Albert Genter, Deputy General Manager of ES Géothermie, presented the geochemical characterisation of geothermal reservoir rocks in the Upper Rhine Graben – results of their activities conducted within the LiCORNE EU-funded project. After a short incursion into the geological formation of the Upper Rhine Graben (URG) area, Dr. Albert Genter highlighted the feasibility of lithium (Li) extraction from the geothermal brines. The high Li concentrations in the geothermal brine at Soultz-sous-Forêts and Rittershoffen [in the range of 150-200 mg/L], combined with significant water flows exploited by the geothermal power plants, indicate a great potential for Li production in the URG. After establishing the fluid circulation within the fractures of the geological formation, the research team at ES-G will continue investigating the chemical composition of sedimentary rocks, which are also part of the reservoir Soultz-sous-Forêts, and conducting Li and strontium (Sr) isotope analyses to provide more detailed information about the origin of lithium in the brine.
Dr. Nivea Magalhães [Univ. of Exeter, UK] presented the conclusions of the forensic geometallurgy protocol established within the ENICON project. Often, information not directly related to processing leads to limited insights into ore processing behaviour. ENICON investigates the impact of mineral textures and grain size on liberation, sometimes interfering with automated mineralogy results. Additionally, the project presented the findings of the ore characterisation of the Kevitsa mine, containing nickel (Ni)- and cobalt (Co)-bearing minerals.
The CRM-geothermal presentation, delivered by Saskia Bindschedler, Professor at Univ. de Neuchatel, Faculty of science, Institute of biology, Laboratory of microbiology, focused on the use of microbial activity for Li recovery from geothermal brines. Geothermal brines are characterised by high temperatures, increased pressure and salinity, conditions favourable for bioextraction processes using microbes. Key findings confirmed the feasibility of microbial-driven processes for Li recovery, enabling effective filtering of elements using oxalate compounds, followed by precipitation via oxalothropic bacteria, such as Pandoraea sp.. While the researchers will continue working on oxalotrophy and initial pH optimisation, focusing on improving the scalability, they will additionally investigate Li concentration in fluid samples.
Download CRM-geothermal presentation
An insight into the results of the METALLICO project, with focus on their COOL+ technology, was delivered by Sandra Pavon from Fraunhofer IKTS. COOL+ is one of the five technologies investigated within the framework of METALLICO, that involves a leaching step using supercritical CO2, that enables the extraction of Li in a more efficient and environmentally friendly manner. After explaining the five phases of the process and comparing the results at the main conclusions reported high selectivity and efficiency in Li recovery, achieving Li2CO3 which meets battery-grade specifications with a purity of 99.7 %. The solid silicate residue that remains after the CO2 leaching step is not wasted. Instead, it is repurposed to produce geopolymers which are further used in the construction sector, aligning with the principles of circular economy and zero-waste.
Download METALLICO presentation
The European energy transition will be built on electrification, relying on clean technologies highly depending on metals, the majority being listed as critical and strategic raw materials. JRC’s Foresight Study, assessing supply chain dependencies and predicting materials demand until 2050, highlights EU’s need to diversity and secure a more resilient resourcing of needed metals. Additional recommendations refer to the necessity to explore Europe’s potential to build internal capacities for mining, refining and processing materials needed for battery production.
In the coming years, demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) will be driven by the automotive sector, complemented by the demand for energy storage systems (ESS) storage requested by the deployment of renewables. Compared to the current supply of materials, major increases are foreseen for graphite (45% in 2030 and 85% in 2050) and lithium (Li) (100% in 2030, expected to reach 170% in 2050). In 2030, the cobalt (Co) demand for batteries will represent almost 60% of the current world supply, expecting to decrease to 40% in 2050, partly due to the shift towards more nickel-rich batteries [source: Foresight Study, JRC].
In the current scenario, overshadowed by geopolitical instability and reliance on powerful nations for critical minerals, the recently adopted Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA) underpins, among other solutions, the need to turn towards domestically sourced recycled metal, which will help reduce reliance on imports or single sources. With clear objectives to strengthen EU’s capacities along the entire value chain, the CRMA additionally sets a threshold for the EU’s processing capacity, which should cover by 2030 at least 40% of the domestic annual consumption of strategic materials.
Researchers from SINTEF have been studying the possibility of recovering Li, nickel (Ni) and Co from secondary raw materials such as black mass, as well as Li from primary resources – spodumene concentrate. The team at SINTEF approached the task by converting the metals in raw materials using molten salt chlorination, a process that could become an alternative to state-of-the-art (SoA) hydrometallurgy.
Researchers conducted experiments on three types of input materials: one spodumene concentrate and two different samples of black mass (BM), the first one of unknown battery chemistry and pre-treatment, while the second BM sample, recovered from an NMC material, had undergone pyrolysis pre-treatment.
The experiments allowed researchers to study the thermal expansion and melting behaviour of the spodumene concentrate, obtaining the highest Li yield (100 %) when chlorine gas is used in a mixture of calcium chloride, sodium chloride and potassium chloride at a temperature of 727 ⁰C . Experiments on black mass material showed the highest chlorination yields were obtained from uncalcined material (Li 64 %, Co and Ni 22-24 %, Cu 83% and Mn 49 %) in a mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride at at 470 ⁰C.
The results of this research was presented by SINTEF representatives at the Joint Symposium on Molten Salts in November 2023.
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© visual: SINTEF
On 16 March 2023, the European Commission proposed a comprehensive set of priority actions to ensure the EU’s access to a secure, diversified, affordable and sustainable supply of critical raw materials (CRMs). With the demand for CRMs expected to skyrocket, Europe needs to mitigate the risks associated with the supply chain of strategic minerals, as highlighted by shortages in the aftermath of the Covid-19 and the energy crisis.
During the official statement, President of the European Commission, Ursula von der Leyen highlighted:
“This Act will bring us closer to our climate ambitions. It will significantly improve the refining, processing and recycling of critical raw materials here in Europe. Raw materials are vital for manufacturing key technologies for our twin transition – like wind power generation, hydrogen storage or batteries. And we’re strengthening our cooperation with reliable trading partners globally to reduce the EU’s current dependencies on just one or a few countries. It’s in our mutual interest to ramp up production in a sustainable manner and at the same time ensure the highest level of diversification of supply chains for our European businesses.”
In addition to an updated list of critical raw materials, the Act presents a set of clear benchmarks for domestic capacities along the strategic raw material supply chain, and to diversity EU supply by 2030:
Eurometaux’s immediate reaction, openly stated by the Director General Guy Thiran, emphasised : “Europe has a meaningful project pipeline for the mining, processing and recycling of base metals, battery materials, and rare earths (inside and outside its territory). These can be brought online by 2030 under the right conditions, adding to Europe’s existing production with the same guarantee of high climate and environmental performance.”
Although the proposed Regulation needs to pass the European Parliament‘s and the Council of the European Union’s evaluations before adoption and entry into force, the initiative sets a clear regulatory framework to support the development and the sustainable exploitation of domestic Li resources.